Effects of virtual reality mindfulness interventions on depression and anxiety: a meta-analysis.
Source: PubMed, NCBI / U.S. National Library of Medicine
Depression and anxiety are common mental health problems that frequently co-occur with trauma-related disorders and often develop following traumatic or stressful events, substantially impairing quality of life. Mindfulness-based interventions have been shown to reduce these symptoms; however, their widespread implementation is often limited by poor accessibility and low adherence. Virtual reality (VR) may enhance mindfulness delivery through immersive experiences, but the overall efficacy of VR-based mindfulness interventions and the factors influencing their effectiveness remain unclear.This exploratory meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of VR-based mindfulness interventions in reducing depressive and anxiety symptoms and to explore potential moderators (population, region, immersion level, and intervention duration).A systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science and other databases up to 2025. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating VR-based mindfulness interventions for depression and/or anxiety were included. Meta-analyses were conducted using RevMan 5.4, calculating standardized mean differences (SMDs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs).Fifteen RCTs involving 864 participants were included. VR-based mindfulness interventions were associated with significant reductions in depressive and anxiety symptoms. Subgroup analyses indicated larger effect sizes among older adults (SMD = -1.40, = .005) an
Abstract
Depression and anxiety are common mental health problems that frequently co-occur with trauma-related disorders and often develop following traumatic or stressful events, substantially impairing quality of life. Mindfulness-based interventions have been shown to reduce these symptoms; however, their widespread implementation is often limited by poor accessibility and low adherence. Virtual reality (VR) may enhance mindfulness delivery through immersive experiences, but the overall efficacy of VR-based mindfulness interventions and the factors influencing their effectiveness remain unclear.This exploratory meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of VR-based mindfulness interventions in reducing depressive and anxiety symptoms and to explore potential moderators (population, region, immersion level, and intervention duration).A systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science and other databases up to 2025. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating VR-based mindfulness interventions for depression and/or anxiety were included. Meta-analyses were conducted using RevMan 5.4, calculating standardized mean differences (SMDs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs).Fifteen RCTs involving 864 participants were included. VR-based mindfulness interventions were associated with significant reductions in depressive and anxiety symptoms. Subgroup analyses indicated larger effect sizes among older adults (SMD = -1.40, = .005) and in studies conducted in Eastern regions (SMD = -1.07, < .00001). Both immersive and semi-immersive VR formats were effective. Interventions of short duration (≤4 weeks) and moderate duration (>6 to ≤8 weeks) showed benefits, and session lengths of ≤30 min were associated with greater symptom reduction (SMD = -0.93, = .005).This exploratory meta-analysis suggests that VR-based mindfulness interventions are associated with reductions in depression and anxiety symptoms, moderated by intervention duration and regional cultural context. These findings support the potential of VR-based mindfulness as an accessible adjunctive approach, though high-quality studies with longer follow-up are needed to confirm sustained effects and improve generalizability.